Rembrandt van Rijn

A sourced technical report. Every claim cites a source key; the sources are listed at the end. "Uncertain" marks claims that are unverified, disputed or taken from a single object. The evidence comes from the Rembrandt Research Project's Corpus (five volumes, read in full text), a 2025 survey of his grounds, recent studies of the Night Watch and the late works (three read only as abstracts, one through a summary), two pages of a National Gallery, London media study (read as page images) and three handbook chapters on pigments. The National Gallery's 2006 book on his technique was not reached; its analyses were read only through ColourLex summaries. Each painting carries its date, to place the evidence in the Leiden years (1625–31), the first Amsterdam decade (1631–c.1640) or the later work (1640–69).

Summary

In Leiden Rembrandt painted on oak panels with a chalk-glue ground and a thin light-brown oil priming [CORPUS-I pp.18–19]. From 1631 he also used canvas: in the 1630s with a commercial gray-over-red double ground, from 1640 mostly with a thick gray-brown ground of quartz-rich clay made in his studio [NOBLE "Ground Layers"; CORPUS-IV pp.330–332]. He drew the design with the brush in translucent brown, set lights in white, then worked up each area from the back of the scene to the front [CORPUS-I pp.21–27]. On the later dark grounds the ground served as middle tone and the lights were built thick in lead white and glazed [NOBLE "Conclusion"]. The palette was small (§4); the oil linseed, sometimes walnut, sometimes heat-bodied, without resin [WK94 p.64].

Terms. Ground: the layers between support and paint. Primuersel: the thin oil priming over a chalk-glue panel ground. Double ground: two ground layers on canvas. Quartz-clay ground: a single ground of clay rich in ground sand. Dead colouring: the first painted sketch of the whole design. Working up: the finishing campaign. Reserve: a space left unpainted for a form painted later. Impasto: thick, raised paint. Glaze: a transparent layer. Scumble: a thin, semi-opaque layer. Lake: a dye fixed on a white base. Smalt: blue cobalt glass, ground. Cassel earth: a translucent organic brown dug from lignite deposits. Ceruse: lead white mixed with chalk. X-radiograph: an X-ray image, which shows lead-rich paint. Bolt: one woven length of canvas.

1. Supports

• Leiden: oak panels. Apart from four small paintings on copper and one on paper, all the Leiden paintings are on oak [CORPUS-I p.12; NOBLE "Early Works"]. Panels have one to three butt-joined planks, grain running lengthwise, backs bevelled, usually about 1 cm at the thickest [CORPUS-I pp.12–13]. They fall into standard sizes bought from a joiner, several at a time; some panels come from the same tree [CORPUS-I p.17; RDB "Support"]. His Boston studio scene shows battens fixed to the panel edges while on the easel [CORPUS-I p.13].
• Gilded copper. Three small heads of 1629–30 are on copper covered with gold leaf [NOBLE "Early Works"].
• Later woods. Later panels include walnut, poplar, beech and tropical woods; one (1647) is a thick board from a sugar box [RDB "Support"]. A beech panel of 1655, about 3 cm thick, may reflect a break in the supply of Baltic oak [CORPUS-V p.551]. The reason is the authors' suggestion. His small landscapes are on oak panel: a stone-bridge landscape of the late 1630s measures 29.5 × 42.3 cm, a mountain landscape of about 1640 51.3 × 71.5 cm [CORPUS-III pp.357, 362].
• Canvas from 1631. Most of his canvases are plain-weave linen; a few, such as the Syndics (1662), are twill [RDB "Support"]. Thread counts in the 1630s run from about 9 to 20 threads per cm, most near 13 to 14 [CORPUS-II pp.26–29] (my reading of the table's numbers); the Night Watch has 12–13 [CORPUS-III p.434]. Groups of canvases came from one bolt [RDB "Support"; CORPUS-IV p.331 n.63].
• Large formats. The Night Watch (1642) is three horizontal strips sewn at the selvedges; the centre strip is 2 ells (about 140 cm) wide. It originally measured about 420 × 500 cm and was trimmed around 1715 [CORPUS-III pp.433–434; CORPUS-IV p.331].
• Stretching. Canvases were primed loose or on oversize strainers and laced or nailed to a working frame [CORPUS-II pp.30–35].
• Re-use. He sometimes painted over earlier pictures, most often for self-portraits; one of 1655 sits directly on an unfinished head with no new ground [RDB "Re-use"; CORPUS-V p.563].

2. Grounds

• Panels, all periods. A chalk-glue layer filled the oak grain; over it lies a very thin (5–10 µm) oil layer of lead white with a little earth or umber, beige or light brown and often translucent [NOBLE "Ground Layers"; CORPUS-I p.19]. Thin enough that the wood grain shows [NOBLE "Ground Layers"]. A 1655 panel probably has the same build [CORPUS-V p.551]. Professional primers probably applied them [CORPUS-I p.20]. Uncertain: Leiden had no artists'-materials shop until 1643 [NOBLE "Early Works"].
• Copper. Lead-white grounds; the gilded coppers have lead white, earth and bone black under the gold [NOBLE "Early Works"].
• Canvas, 1630s. Some 38 canvases of 1632–40 attributed to him, now or formerly, have a double ground: red earth below, light gray rich in lead white above [NOBLE "Early Works"]. In two commissions of 1632–34 the lower layer is red ochre, umber and a little lead white; the upper is lead white with tiny amounts of lamp black, yellow ochre and red lead. Identical grounds point to one professional primer [NOBLE "Early Works"]. In a still life of about 1639 the gray is warmer: lead white, a little bone black, umber [NOBLE "Early Works"].
• Canvas, 1640–69: quartz-clay. First used for the Night Watch [NOBLE "Quartz-Clay Grounds"; CORPUS-IV p.331]. A pottery-type clay with about 50–60% sand ground to 5–60 µm, tinted with earths, umber and sometimes black [CORPUS-IV p.328]. Usually one thick layer: up to 300 µm on the Night Watch, about 400 µm on another canvas [NOBLE "Quartz-Clay Grounds"; CORPUS-IV p.330]. Oil-rich and flexible [CORPUS-IV p.331]. Forty-five of 153 canvases from his studio examined have it, 42% of those from 1642–69; none of sixty canvases from other Amsterdam studios do, so it was made in his workshop [CORPUS-IV pp.330–332]. Its color is a drab gray-brown [NOBLE "Quartz-Clay Grounds"]. Under the Night Watch's ground a lead-rich layer was applied to the canvas first [BROERS23]. Read as an abstract.
• Other dark grounds, 1650s–60s. Lead white with umber in one or two layers; brown grounds rich in chalk; brown and red ochre with chalk, lead white and charcoal (1667); umber, lead white, ochres and charcoal (1669) [NOBLE "Other Dark Grounds"]. One holds stray particles of lake, smalt and vermilion, as if made with palette scrapings [NOBLE "Other Dark Grounds"].
• Ground left in view. Early, the light ground shows through open brushwork for luminosity; late, large areas of dark ground are left bare as shadow and half-shadow [NOBLE "The Painting Process", "Other Dark Grounds"].

3. Drawing and lay-in

• No underdrawing on panel. Neither eye nor infrared found drawing under the Leiden panels; few compositional drawings survive, so he probably invented on the support [CORPUS-I pp.20, 22].
• Brown brush sketch. The lay-in was a brush drawing in oil-rich, more or less translucent brown, lines and washed tones, directly on the priming. Its main ingredient is an organic brown, probably Cologne (Cassel) earth, mixed with palette leftovers [CORPUS-I p.21]. In a 1632 group portrait the brown sketch under the faces contains Cassel earth [NOBLE "Early Works"]. In portraits of 1634 a few fine lines came first, then a broad brown and black sketch [NOBLE "The Painting Process"].
• Lights in the dead colour. From 1626, light paint containing lead white was set into the sketch at places [CORPUS-I p.24]. In the Night Watch these lights are partly ceruse [CORPUS-III p.441].
• Local flat colour. Occasionally an area was underpainted in a flat tint near its final color, such as green under a landscape [CORPUS-I p.23 n.55].
• Night Watch: light on dark. On the brown ground he sketched the composition in a light, chalk-rich paint, some forms in dark brown; the ground spared him a long dark dead colouring [NOBLE "Quartz-Clay Grounds"].
• Late. In a 1669 self-portrait the sketch layer seems abandoned [NOBLE "Other Dark Grounds"].

4. Pigments

Pigment	Evidence	Notes
Lead white	Every period [CORPUS-I p.19; DK25; CLX "Belshazzar"]	Night Watch white is rich in hydrocerussite, good hiding [DK25]
Chalk	Panel grounds [NOBLE "Ground Layers"]; bodies glaze-like layers "without altering their colour" [WK94 p.64]; in ceruse highlights and the chalk-rich sketch of 1642 [CORPUS-III p.441; NOBLE "Quartz-Clay Grounds"]; mixtures of 1635 and c.1661 [CLX "Ganymede", "Jacob Trip"]
Bone (ivory) black	1634 black clothing in one layer [NOBLE "Early Works"]; 1636–38, 1661 [CLX "Belshazzar", "Margaretha de Geer"]; 1642 [DK25]	A poor drier [WK94 p.64]
Charcoal black	1640 cloak [CLX "Self-Portrait at 34"]; 1654 flesh [CLX "Woman Bathing"]; c.1659, c.1661 [CLX "Saint Paul", "Jacob Trip"]; late grounds [NOBLE "Other Dark Grounds"]
Yellow, orange and brown ochres	Every period [CLX "Saskia", "Woman Bathing", "Self-Portrait at 63"]; yellow earth as the shadow base in 1642 [DK25]
Red ochre	Every period [CLX "Self-Portrait 1659", "Margaretha de Geer"]; sparing in 1642 [DK25]
Umber	Leiden primuersel [NOBLE "Early Works"]; c.1659–61 [CLX "Saint Paul", "Jacob Trip"]; late grounds [NOBLE "Other Dark Grounds"]	Raw or burnt not stated
Cassel (Cologne) earth	Leiden sketch layers, probably [CORPUS-I p.21]; 1632 [NOBLE "Early Works"]; 1640 flesh [CLX "Self-Portrait at 34"]; c.1654–56 [CLX "Hendrickje"]	"Poorly drying", always mixed with other pigments [WK94 p.65]; transparent, poor hiding [AP3 p.171]
Lead-tin yellow (type I)	1635 [CLX "Saskia"]; 1636–38 [CLX "Belshazzar"]; 1642 [DK25]; c.1665 lit sleeve [VLOON17]
Yellow lake (buckthorn)	1636–38 [CLX "Belshazzar"]; 1642, on chalk [CORPUS-III p.441]; 1654 [CLX "Woman Bathing"]; 1669 [CLX "Self-Portrait at 63"]	With yellow ochre in lit foliage (1654) [CLX "Woman Bathing"]
Arsenic sulfide yellows	1642: pararealgar with lead-tin yellow and vermilion for gold embroidery [DK24]; c.1665: artificial orpiment in brownish half-shadows [VLOON17]	Late and rare
Vermilion	1636–38 [CLX "Belshazzar"]; 1640, a little in flesh [CLX "Self-Portrait at 34"]; 1642, under red lake [RL26]; 1654 flesh [CLX "Woman Bathing"]	His most used opaque red [RL26]
Red lakes: cochineal, madder	"Most often cochineal and madder", once brazilwood [NGABS p.19]; insect lake in 1642 [DK25; RL26]; cochineal c.1661 [CLX "Margaretha de Geer"]; both c.1661, 1669 [CLX "Jacob Trip", "Self-Portrait at 63"]	Glazes and mixtures; gum added to thicken [VLOON17]
Smalt	Leiden sky, probably [CORPUS-I p.19]; 1636–38 [CLX "Belshazzar"]; coarse in 1642 underpaint [DK25]; c.1661 glazes [CLX "Margaretha de Geer"]; c.1665 background [VLOON17]	Rich and pale grades; for color, body and drying [NGABS p.20]
Azurite	1635 greens [CLX "Saskia"]; 1636–38 [CLX "Belshazzar"]; 1642 [CORPUS-III p.442; DK25]; 1644 [CLX "Woman Taken in Adultery"]; c.1659 glaze [CLX "Saint Paul"]	A good drier [WK94 p.64]; greener than ultramarine [AP2 p.26]

• Greens were mixed. In 1635 foliage and dress are azurite with lead-tin yellow, ochre or a yellow glaze [CLX "Saskia"]. In early work a pale green lies over pink [CORPUS-I pp.30–31].
• Driers by mixture. Small amounts of azurite or smalt went into lakes and bone black; ochres went into Cassel earth [WK94 pp.64–65].
• Broken color. At the end of the 1620s he gave up the bright hues of his first works for subdued mixtures [NOBLE "Early Works"].

5. Media and varnish

• Oil. "Rembrandt used linseed, or occasionally walnut, oil, sometimes heat-bodied"; no resin added for gloss or drying [WK94 p.64].
• Lead in the impasto. Plumbonacrite in impasto from four paintings points to an alkaline, lead-bearing medium [GON19]. Lead formate occurs in the Night Watch; model paints of linseed oil heated with lead oxide, after 17th-century recipes, form it too, one possible route [GON23]. Both read as abstracts.
• Other additions. Egg was tentatively found in 1997 in the Night Watch, but newer analysis found no protein [DK25]. Uncertain.
• Varnish. By the 18th century the Night Watch was so covered with "boiled Oil and Varnishes" that it looked tarred [CORPUS-III p.482]. His own varnish is not documented in the sources read.

6. Layers and application

• Leiden. The finishing layers are largely opaque; areas overlap rather than meet wet-in-wet [CORPUS-I pp.24, 26]. Gold brocade is thick spots over translucent brown; local glazes and a thin blue glaze over middle grounds occur but are exceptions [CORPUS-I p.31]. Impasto catches real light in highlights [CORPUS-I p.31].
• Scratching. He scratched into wet paint, with the back of the brush or another blunt tool, for hair, fur, stones and foliage [CORPUS-I p.31; VLOON17; NOBLE "Early Works"]; on gilded copper the scratches expose gold [NOBLE "Early Works"]. Hard bristles left scratch marks in a landscape sky [CORPUS-III p.357].
• Landscapes, 1638–c.1640. In the stone-bridge panel the darks are thin warm brown, the lights thicker, the highest lights impasto; much is wet-in-wet. Long horizontal strokes make water; small dabs of greens and yellows make lit trees; the dark sky is gray brushed in all directions with the ground showing through [CORPUS-III pp.357–358; NOBLE "Early Works"]. In the mountain landscape, translucent brown fills the foreground shadows, with roads and trees drawn into it in dark brown; vegetation is spots of light green, ochre and black, with red dabs for blossom; lit stone is thick [CORPUS-III pp.362–363].
• Still lifes and interiors. In the peacock still life of about 1639 the setting is broad flat grays and browns and the birds thick, fluent strokes: dark green body, blue-green on the lit side, carmine blood [CORPUS-III pp.336–338]. In the slaughtered ox (1655) stone is dabbed thick gray, a wooden post is so thin that ground and brown underpaint make its shadow, the carcass is rugged impasto with red glazes and thin blue-green membranes [CORPUS-V p.555].
• Flesh. In 1632 the lit parts of faces were painted straight on the gray ground, shadows over the brown sketch [NOBLE "Early Works"]. Flesh mixtures: lead white with ochres, a little vermilion and Cassel earth (1640); lead white with charcoal black, ochres, red lake, vermilion and traces of azurite (1654) [CLX "Self-Portrait at 34", "Woman Bathing"]. Shadows of lead white, ochres and bone black; a mouth shadow of red lake over ochre and black (1659) [CLX "Self-Portrait 1659"]. Late flesh is modelled wet-in-wet in high impasto next to bare dark ground [NOBLE "Other Dark Grounds"].
• Night Watch. Textured lead-white underpaint with coarse smalt, up to 850 µm, builds the lit costume; highlights are lead-tin yellow impasto topped with pure lead white; shadows are smooth glazes and scumbles of yellow earth, red lake and bone black [DK25]. A vermilion sash is shaded with red lake [RL26]. Embroidery stood "so high in Paint that one might grate a Nutmeg on it" (1758) [CORPUS-III p.482].
• Late manner. From the 1650s he spread and ridged paint with a palette knife [VLOON17; CORPUS-IV p.573]. Thick lead-white underlayers were toned with glazes [NOBLE "Conclusion"; VLOON17]. Thick translucent glazes were bodied with smalt and chalk [WK94 p.64; CLX "Margaretha de Geer"]. An early biographer (1718) said the paint looked laid on with a bricklayer's trowel [CORPUS-V p.114]. Fingers are reported [VLOON17]. Secondhand.
• Brushes. In a 1660 self-portrait the brushes he holds appear round with short hair [CORPUS-IV p.510]. Inference from a painted image.

7. Working sequence and reworking

• Order. Inventing on the support, dead colouring, working up, then retouching [CORPUS-I p.23; NOBLE "The Painting Process"].
• Back to front. He worked up the sky or rear wall first and the foreground figures last, leaving reserves that X-rays show as dark shapes [CORPUS-I pp.25–27]. The Night Watch follows the same order [CORPUS-III p.442; DK25]. Reserves left too big were patched with thinner paint [CORPUS-I pp.27–28].
• A palette per area. Retouches differ in paint from their surroundings, which suggests a palette set for each area [CORPUS-I p.28]. Inference by the authors.
• Seated. His studio scene shows grooves worn in the easel's lowest rung by a seated painter's feet [CORPUS-I p.25].
• Time and drying. An Italian biographer (1686), drawing on a former pupil, wrote that he spent two or three months on a portrait, going over it again as soon as it was dry, until the paint was nearly half a finger thick [WK94 p.64]. In the Night Watch the lead-white underpaint was dry before the final layers [NOBLE "Quartz-Clay Grounds"].
• Changes. X-rays of the Syndics (1662) show heads and hands in several positions [RDB "Painter at Work"]. He scraped paint off with a rounded tool or wiped it with a rag over his finger [CORPUS-I p.33].
• Viewing distance. "Hang this piece in a strong light and so that one can stand at a distance, then it will sparkle best" (his letter, 1639) [CORPUS-III p.194]. He pulled visitors back from his late work, saying "the smell of the paint will bother you" [CORPUS-V p.114].

8. Condition and aging

• Smalt has lost color, often to gray or brown [DK25; NGABS p.20; VLOON17].
• Lakes fade. Yellow lakes fade fast; brazilwood fades to dull yellow-brown [RL26; NGABS p.19].
• Arsenic sulfides have degraded to a grayish, cloudy compound in the Night Watch [DK25].
• White crusts. Calcium oxalate makes white hazes and crusts over dark passages [DK25; NGABS p.16].
• Greens grayed. A greenish paint in the mountain landscape has disintegrated to gray [CORPUS-III pp.362–363].
• Darkened grounds. The Night Watch ground has browned; extracted with solvent it is several shades lighter [CORPUS-III pp.434–435].
• Translucency. Early paint has grown more translucent as the medium aged [CORPUS-I p.24 n.57]; lead-white priming has lost opacity [NOBLE "Ground Layers"].
• Lead soaps protrude in the Night Watch [BROERS23].
• Wear of thin dark paint exposes the ground [CORPUS-III pp.434–435].

9. The tubes here

The historical names in this note are mapped to these tubes: lead white → lead white; ceruse → lead white and whiting; chalk → whiting (prepared chalk); bone or ivory black → bone black; charcoal black → charcoal black; lamp black (in a primer's gray ground) → charcoal black (a proxy); yellow ochre → yellow ochre; orange ochre → yellow ochre and red earth; brown ochre → brown ochre; red ochre → red earth; umber → raw umber; Cassel or Cologne earth, and the organic brown of the Leiden sketches → Cassel earth; lead-tin yellow → lead-tin yellow; arsenic sulfide yellows (artificial orpiment, pararealgar) → lead-tin yellow (a proxy: near in color, more opaque); buckthorn and other yellow lakes → yellow lake; vermilion → vermilion; cochineal or other insect lake → cochineal lake; madder lake → rose madder; brazilwood lake (one painting) → rose madder (a proxy); rich smalt → smalt; pale, low-grade smalt → pale smalt; azurite → azurite. The quartz-clay ground has no tube; its drab gray-brown can be laid from whiting, raw umber, yellow ochre and a little charcoal black (inference).

10. At this easel

• Support. Plain-weave linen with ground layers laid from the tubes.
• Paint. Pigment from the tubes with an oil-medium share.
• Taking paint off. A brush picks up wet paint as it passes; that is how paint comes off the canvas.
• Everything else the easel does is in the easel guide.

Sources

• [CORPUS-I] Van de Wetering, E., "Painting materials and working methods," in Bruyn, J. et al., A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings I (The Hague 1982), pp.11–33. Full text read in the RKD's free PDF. https://rembrandtdatabase.org/images/corpus/CorpusRembrandt_1.pdf
• [CORPUS-II] Van de Wetering, E., "The canvas support," in A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings II (1986), pp.15–43, with Table B (thread counts 1631–42). https://rembrandtdatabase.org/images/corpus/CorpusRembrandt_2.pdf
• [CORPUS-III] Bruyn, J. et al., A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings III (1989): the 1639 letter, p.194; entries A 134 (peacock still life, pp.334–338), A 136 (stone-bridge landscape, pp.357–359), A 137 (mountain landscape, pp.362–364), A 146 (Night Watch, pp.430–485, incl. an 18th-century restorer's account p.482). https://rembrandtdatabase.org/images/corpus/CorpusRembrandt_3.pdf
• [CORPUS-IV] A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings IV (2005): Groen, K., "Grounds in Rembrandt's workshop and in paintings by his contemporaries," pp.318–334; entries IV 19 (p.510), IV 27 (p.573). https://rembrandtdatabase.org/images/corpus/CorpusRembrandt_4.pdf
• [CORPUS-V] Van de Wetering, E., A Corpus of Rembrandt Paintings V (2011): ch. I, "Handling of the brush," p.114; entries V 21 (slaughtered ox, pp.551–556), V 22 (p.563). https://rembrandtdatabase.org/images/corpus/CorpusRembrandt_5.pdf
• [NOBLE] Noble, P., "The Role of the Colored Ground in Rembrandt's Painting Practice," Journal of Historians of Netherlandish Art 17:2 (2025), cited by section ("Early Works" = "Rembrandt's Early Works, 1625–1639"; "Quartz-Clay Grounds"; "Other Dark Grounds"). Full text. https://doi.org/10.5092/jhna.2025.17.2.5
• [WK94] White, R. and Kirby, J., "Rembrandt and his Circle: Seventeenth-Century Dutch Paint Media Re-examined," National Gallery Technical Bulletin 15 (1994), pp.64–78. Pages 64–65 read as page images (the PDF has no text layer). https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/media/15694/white_kirby1994.pdf
• [CLX] ColourLex pigment analyses, cited by painting: "Saskia" (Saskia in Arcadian Costume, 1635), "Ganymede" (1635, Dresden analyses), "Belshazzar" (c.1636–38), "Self-Portrait at 34" (1640), "Woman Taken in Adultery" (1644), "Woman Bathing" (1654), "Hendrickje" (c.1654–56), "Saint Paul" (c.1659), "Self-Portrait 1659" (Washington), "Jacob Trip" and "Margaretha de Geer" (c.1661), "Self-Portrait at 63" (1669). Most summarize Bomford, D., Kirby, J., Roy, A., Rüger, A. and White, R., Art in the Making: Rembrandt, new ed. (London 2006), which was not read directly. Secondhand. https://colourlex.com/project_category/rembrandt/
• [DK25] De Keyser, N. et al., "Illuminating Rembrandt's chiaroscuro in The Night Watch: the painting process of Van Ruytenburch's costume," npj Heritage Science 13 (2025), 406. Read through a summary of the full text with quotations. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12360951/
• [DK24] De Keyser, N. et al., "Discovery of pararealgar and semi-amorphous pararealgar in Rembrandt's The Night Watch," Heritage Science 12 (2024), 237. https://www.nature.com/articles/s40494-024-01350-x
• [RL26] Gabrieli, F., Delaney, J. K., van Loon, A., Krumm, H. and Keune, K., "Unveiling Rembrandt's use of red lake pigments in The Night Watch by bi-modal imaging spectroscopy approach," npj Heritage Science 14 (2026), 405. https://www.nature.com/articles/s40494-026-02569-6
• [VLOON17] Van Loon, A. et al., "Artificial orpiment, a new pigment in Rembrandt's palette," Heritage Science 5 (2017), 26. https://www.nature.com/articles/s40494-017-0138-1
• [GON19] Gonzalez, V. et al., "Unraveling the Composition of Rembrandt's Impasto through the Identification of Unusual Plumbonacrite," Angewandte Chemie Int. Ed. 58 (2019), pp.5619–5622. Abstract only. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201813105
• [GON23] Gonzalez, V. et al., "Lead(II) Formate in Rembrandt's Night Watch," Angewandte Chemie Int. Ed. 62 (2023), e202216478. Abstract only. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202216478
• [BROERS23] Broers, F. T. H. et al., "Correlated x-ray fluorescence and ptychographic nano-tomography on Rembrandt's The Night Watch reveals unknown lead 'layer'," Science Advances 9 (2023), eadj9394. Abstract only. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adj9394
• [NGABS] Rembrandt Now: Technical Practice, Conservation and Research, book of abstracts, National Gallery, London (2014): van Loon and Noble, p.16; Peggie et al., p.19; Spring, p.20. https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/media/32ee3ikx/rembrandt-abstracts-book.pdf
• [RDB] RKD, The Rembrandt Database, "In Focus: Materials and Technique," pages "Support," "Re-use" and "The Painter at Work." https://rembrandtdatabase.org/rembrandt-database-in-focus/materials-and-technique.html
• [AP2] Gettens, R. J. and FitzHugh, E. W., "Azurite and Blue Verditer," in Roy, A. (ed.), Artists' Pigments 2 (1993), pp.23–35. https://www.nga.gov/sites/default/files/migrate_images/content/dam/ngaweb/research/publications/pdfs/artists-pigments-vol2.pdf
• [AP3] FitzHugh, E. W. (ed.), Artists' Pigments 3 (1997): FitzHugh, "Orpiment and Realgar," pp.47–80; Feller, R. L. and Johnston-Feller, R. M., chapter on the humic-earth browns (Cassel and Cologne earth), pp.157–190. https://www.nga.gov/sites/default/files/migrate_images/content/dam/ngaweb/research/publications/pdfs/artists-pigments-vol3.pdf